Prostitution as a Social Problem Research Paper

Prostitution as a Social Problem - Research Paper Example This conversation stresses thatâ there are three classes of prostitutes.â Those who have a place with the top layer are the tactful call-young ladies for the affluent.â Those in the white collar class are the whores who work in strip clubs and back rub parlors and who offer private cabin services.â Those in the least layer are the road walkers which incorporate the mistresses, hookers and nightwalkers.â The whores in the least layer are the ones plagued by most problems.â Because they are not under any oversight, they are inclined to viciousness and at a high social insurance chance because of risky sexual contact with unscreened clients.â These are the whores who are needing much help.This paper talks about that prostitution includes a great deal of personalities.â Foremost among the gathering are the prostitutes.â In the U.S., the normal period of section into prostitution is 14 . This gathering which assumes the jobs of whores incorporates youngsters or teenagers, or grown-ups who went into frameworks of prostitution as kids or teens.â A greater part likewise incorporates the Third World ladies and children.â They are the ones who are frequently focuses of traffickers.â These ladies and kids are oppressed and forced and brought to western countries for use in houses of ill-repute and back rub parlors, or as mail request brides.â In some Third World nations, â€Å"sex tourism† is exceptionally uncontrolled in light of the fact that it offers modest prostitution. The subsequent gathering associated with prostitution are the pimps.â About 80-90% of prostitution includes a pimp.... First among the gathering are the whores. In the U.S., the normal time of section into prostitution is 14 (SAGE, n.d.). This gathering which assumes the jobs of whores incorporates youngsters or adolescents, or grown-ups who went into frameworks of prostitution as kids or teenagers. A dominant part likewise incorporates the Third World ladies and youngsters. They are the ones who are frequently focuses of dealers. These ladies and youngsters are subjugated and forced and brought to western countries for use in houses of ill-repute and back rub parlors, or as international wives. In some Third World nations, â€Å"sex tourism† is uncontrolled on the grounds that it offers modest prostitution. The subsequent gathering associated with prostitution are the pimps. Around 80-90% of prostitution includes a pimp. They are either male or female with various ethnic foundations and societal position. Pimps â€Å"control the individuals in prostitution through compulsion, power, chronic drug use, or the abuse of monetary, physical or passionate vulnerability† (SAGE, n.d.). A significant gathering that is associated with the arrangement of prostitution is the â€Å"demand† side, which means the â€Å"johns†, â€Å"tricks†, clients and youngster sexual abusers. These are the individuals who are into erotic entertainment and who go to strip clubs. Different gatherings who are survivors of the arrangement of prostitution are the transgender, lesbian, promiscuous and gay youth. In light of the separation that they experience from their families and networks, they are frequently the objectives of pimps. Since certain social orders despite everything discover this gathering inadmissible, prostitution turns into their choice for financial endurance. Law authorization offices and officials have a task to carry out too in prostitution. They are the gathering who can control, destroy or add to the issue of prostitution in the

Time Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Time Management - Essay Example Chris needed to look for help on time the executives subsequent to flopping in a prospective employee meet-up because of delay. The leader of the talking board was specific to him that they dislike a worker who comes to work late. He in this way got time the executives aptitudes from an administration expert to whom his sibling suggested him. The advisor took him through a progression of exercises on time the executives abilities, for example, arranging and organizing before testing him on the educated aptitudes lastly exposing him to a progression of thorough occurrences that necessary use of the abilities. He was productive in time the executives before the finish of his booked activities. Stacy anyway took in her time the board aptitudes through watching her friend’s capacity in time the executives. She severally visited her companion subsequent to learning of her effectiveness in time the executives and helped the companion in embraced her exercises. It required some inves tment yet she in the long run received her friend’s potential in time the executives (Marquis and Huston, p. 188). It is hard to oversee time in school. This is a result of shortage of time comparative with potential endeavors, for example, going to classes, undertaking individual investigations, and taking an interest in additional educational plan

On Worldviews and Reading Widely

On Worldviews and Reading Widely This post is part of our International Womens Day celebration. See all the posts here. In the last few years, mostly by the influence of the rad community here, Ive made my reading choices 100% more deliberate than they ever were before. In addressing that, Ive read some awesome books that have significantly affected my worldview and broadened my cultural knowledge in ways my anthropology classes during university didnt. And since were talking about this on International Womens Day, Im going to narrow the scope down to a few lady-authored books. Im a teacher. My first couple of years teaching I was in Japan and only generally had to be sensitive to one culture in my students, and this includes naming conventions and pronunciations. Ive always felt that names are important, but it wasnt until I moved back to Miami and started teaching at a school with a much more diverse student body that I came to realize just how. Whenever I meet new students now, the dialogue begins with questions like, Is your name in English or Spanish? or What language do you speak at home?. Theres such meaningful cultural exchange there, and it gives kids the opportunity to share a piece of themselves with me they dont really get asked about by adults often. That and, you know, treating young kids with respect and learning their names correctly has become super important to me as a result of my experiences. One day, I was teaching Kindergarten and I came across a name very similar to that of Ifemelu from Americanah by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie. I asked the little girl, Are you, or is your family from Nigeria? Her eyes lit up, and she replied that yes, besides her father, all of her family is from Nigeria, and how did I know? Nobody ever figures that, and please let me explain to you what my name means, because I love my name. Im no expert, and this is more than a little bit serendipitous because I had some knowledge from having read that book, but Im taking it. Its one of the most satisfying in-school moments Ive ever experienced thanks to the power of reading books by people who are different from myself. Weve talked about Roxane Gays rad essay collection Bad Feminist before, and how necessary it is to look at race and gender and media portrayal with a critical eye. Its a brave collection, not just because of the general subject matter, but because some of the essays are deeply personal and revealing of the authors life experiences. Bad Feminist, for me, was validating and informative, but then I read Gays An Untamed State,  which took me seriously out of my comfort zone. I cant express enough how deeply affected I was by that book, which is about a woman who is kidnapped in Haiti by a group of people who had demands of her father. Its a difficult and terrifying read, and if youre aware of some of the authors own history, it gets even realer. Sometimes, a cultural exchange or learning about different experiences will be easy. Other times, not so. Sometimes, I dont even have to look far from home for the toughest and realest stories. I recently read Gabi, A Girl in Pieces by Isabel Quintero and was totally blown away by how perfectly well the author captured what the life of a young Latin@ can be like. What it can be like to be a gay teen son or a pregnant teen daughter in a God-fearing Latino household. Or a mom who struggles every day not to fall apart in front anyone from shame or embarrassment, especially not in front of her kids. About a chubby girl who finds her feminism and her voice, and a creative outlet for it in poetry. This book would have helped so many friends through so much frustration when we were teenagers, but its over with now, and hey: Ive got the ability now to get it into as many hands as I can. There are so many people who say that books are just entertainment, and what matters is that the story is good, not the gender/race/background/orientation/culture of the author or main characters. But I reject that way of thinking. Books are a safe way to learn about different people or cultures. Theyre capable of validating your feelings or experiences or help you understand your friends better. And they can be a sturdy hurricane impact window keeping you safe on one side and some terrible things on the other. So yeah, some fools can keep pretending that these narratives arent important, but Ill be over here being a better human and talking up these books that teach me about people who arent just like me. Also In This Story Stream The Women in Science We Don’t Write About Terry Tempest Williams on Women and Books Feminist-Friendly Comic Books Lauren Beukes On Writers and Their Cats Fatima Mernissi, Morocco’s Feminist Icon Sonali Dev on Why She Writes The Heroines She Writes All Around the World: Women Writers from Every Continent 50 of the Best Heroines from Middle Grade Books Between Worlds: Finding Home in Fantasy How to Raise a Well-Read Woman View all international women's day posts-->

Edisons Invention of the Phonograph

Kingship and Leadership in William Shakespeares King Lear...

Kingship and Leadership in William Shakespeares King Lear Jonathon Dollimore (1984) focuses on Lear’s identity throughout the play. ‘What makes Lear the person he is, is not kingly essence, but among other things, his authority and his family. As the play progresses Lear is forced to question his identity. â€Å"Does anyone hear know me?†¦Who is it that can tell me who I am?†. Dollimore believes King Lear is about power, poverty and inheritance. Shakespeare focuses on what happens when there is a ‘catastrophic redistribution of power’. At the start of the play Lear has a rich, powerful and complex social identity. He is King and Patriarch of his family. Being the king he was therefore†¦show more content†¦The last line which Kent speaks here is a one word line; ‘Authority’. This shorter sentence is powerful and it emphasizes and demonstrates the them of kingship and authority in the play, especially in the first act. It is also noticeable that Lear uses the third person (the royal ‘we’) early in the play but later when he realises he is powerless he uses the first person (‘I’, ‘Methinks’). Shakespeare uses this change in language as it reflects Lear’s change is status from a king to â€Å"a foolish old man†. Lear uses his authority to divide the kingdom, yet the king does not even possess this power. The power of the throne could only be passed following the death of Lear, however, he takes on this responsibility of doing so. Lear exercising this non-existent power it the cause of his hardship and turmoil. It causes him and his family their downfall from their status of authority. Regan and Goneril use emotional flattery towards their father in order to gain power and misuse the authority that Lear has given them. Even though the power and responsibilities as king are transferred to Lear’s children, he still wants to retain his recognition as king. â€Å"Only we shall retain The name and th’addition to a king; the sway, Revenue, execution of the rest, Beloved sons, be yours: which to confirm, This coronetShow MoreRelatedPower In Stephen Frears Film, The Queen And Shakespeares King Lear1316 Words   |  6 PagesPolitical authority and power play an extensive role in both Stephen Frears Film, The Queen and Shakespeare’s play, King Lear. Frears explores the theme of power through, Queen Elizabeth II, a hardline traditionalist who is blinded by old world protocols and traditions all but failing to see the transfer in balance of power. Similarly, Shakespeare explores the theme through the protagonist Lear, a king fascinated with grand showings of his sovereignty by staging and arranging situations that praiseRead MoreThe Tragedy Of King Lear Essay1745 Words   |  7 PagesIn William Shakespeare’s play The Tragedy of King Lear, human suffering is exploited through exploring social destruction caused by love, lust, and loss. King Lear’s kingdom is broken down through the excess of love and hate. Behaviors resulting from such emotions becomes tragic fla ws for the characters within the play, as the need for approval disrupts all natural social order, which is then represented by the natural world. The natural world and nature of society become intertwined as the plotRead More William Faulkners Use of Shakespeare Essay5388 Words   |  22 PagesWilliam Faulkners Use of Shakespeare Throughout his career William Faulkner acknowledged the influence of many writers upon his work--Twain, Dreiser, Anderson, Keats, Dickens, Conrad, Balzac, Bergson, and Cervantes, to name only a few--but the one writer that he consistently mentioned as a constant and continuing influence was William Shakespeare. Though Faulkner’s claim as a fledgling writer in 1921 that â€Å"[he] could write a play like Hamlet if [he] wanted to† (FAB 330) may be dismissed asRead MoreEssay The Thought Process of Shakespeares Hamlet4082 Words   |  17 PagesThe Thought Process of Shakespeares Hamlet If Hamlet from himself be taen away, And when hes not himself does wrong Laertes, Then Hamlet does it not, Hamlet denies it. Who does it then? His madness. Ift be so, Hamlet is of the faction that is wrongd; His madness is poor Hamlets enemy. (V.ii.230-235) Hamlets self-description in his apology to Laertes, delivered in the appropriately distanced and divided third-person, explicitly fingers the greatest antagonist of the play†¹consciousness

Conflict of Interest Free Essays

CONFLICT OF INTEREST POLICY Article I Purpose The purpose of the conflict of interest policy is to protect Diamond Cut Loyalty Canine Rescue and Pit Bull Rehabilitation, Inc. ’s (herein â€Å"Organization†) interest when it is contemplating entering into a transaction or arrangement that might benefit the private interest of an officer or director of the Organization or might result in a possible excess benefit transaction. This policy is intended to supplement but not replace any applicable state and federal laws governing conflict of interest applicable to nonprofit and charitable organizations. We will write a custom essay sample on Conflict of Interest or any similar topic only for you Order Now Article II Definitions . Interested Person Any director, principal officer, or member of a committee with governing board delegated powers, who has a direct or indirect financial interest, as defined below, is an Interested Person. 2. Financial Interest A person has a financial interest if the person has, directly or indirectly, through business, investment, or family: a. An ownership or investment interest in any entity with which the Organization has a transaction or arrangement, b. A compensation arrangement with the Organization or with any entity or individual with which the Organization has a transaction or arrangement, or . A potential ownership or investment interest in, or compensation arrangement with, any entity or individual with which the Organization is negotiating a transaction or arrangement. Compensation includes direct and indirect remuneration as well as gifts or favors that are not insubstantial. A financial interest is not necessarily a conflict of interest. Und er Article III, Section 2, a person who has a financial interest may have a conflict of interest only if the Board of Directors decides that a conflict of interest exists. 3. Board of Directors The directors, collectively, of the Organization. Article III Procedures 1. Duty to Disclose In connection with any actual or possible conflict of interest, an Interested Person must disclose the existence of the financial interest and be given the opportunity to disclose all material facts to the Board of Directors relating to the proposed transaction or arrangement. 2. Determining Whether a Conflict of Interest Exists After disclosure of the financial interest and all material facts, and after any discussion with the interested person, he/she shall leave the Board of Directors meeting while the determination of a conflict of interest is discussed and voted upon. The remaining board members shall decide if a conflict of interest exists. 3. Procedures for Addressing the Conflict of Interest a. An interested person may make a presentation to the Board of Directors, but after the presentation, he/she shall leave the meeting during the discussion of, and the vote on, the transaction or arrangement involving the possible conflict of interest. b. The chairperson of the Board of Directors shall, if appropriate, appoint a disinterested person or committee to investigate alternatives to the proposed transaction or arrangement. c. After exercising due diligence, the Board of Directors shall determine whether the Organization can obtain with reasonable efforts a more advantageous transaction or arrangement from a person or entity that would not give rise to a conflict of interest. d. If a more advantageous transaction or arrangement is not reasonably possible under circumstances not producing a conflict of interest, the Board of Directors shall determine by a majority vote of the disinterested directors whether the transaction or arrangement is in the Organization’s best interest, for its own benefit, and whether it is fair and reasonable. In conformity with the above determination it shall make its decision as to whether to enter into the transaction or arrangement. 4. Violations of the Conflicts of Interest Policy a. If the Board of Directors has reasonable cause to believe a member has failed to disclose actual or possible conflicts of interest, it shall inform the member of the basis for such belief and afford the member an opportunity to explain the alleged failure to disclose. . If, after hearing the member’s response and after making further investigation as warranted by the circumstances, the Board of Directors determines the member has failed to disclose an actual or possible conflict of interest, it shall take appropriate disciplinary and corrective action. Article IV Records of Proceedings The minutes of the Board of Directors’ meeting shall contain: a. The names of the persons who disclosed or otherwise were found to have a financial interest in connection with an actual or possible conflict of interest, the nature of the financial interest, any action taken to determine whether a conflict of interest was present, and the Board of Directors’ decision as to whether a conflict of interest in fact existed. b. The names of the persons who were present for discussions and votes relating to the transaction or arrangement, the content of the discussion, including any alternatives to the proposed transaction or arrangement, and a record of any votes taken in connection with the proceedings. Article V Compensation a. A voting member of the Board of Directors who receives compensation, directly or indirectly, from the Organization for services is precluded from voting on matters pertaining to that member’s compensation. b. A voting member of any committee whose jurisdiction includes compensation matters and who receives compensation, directly or indirectly, from the Organization for services is precluded from voting on matters pertaining to that member’s compensation. c. No voting member of the Board of Directors whose jurisdiction includes compensation matters and who receives compensation, directly or indirectly, from the Organization, either individually or collectively, is prohibited from providing information to any committee regarding compensation. Article VI Annual Statements Each director, principal officer and member of a committee with governing board delegated powers shall annually sign a statement which affirms such person: a. Has received a copy of the conflicts of interest policy, . Has read and understands the policy, c. Has agreed to comply with the policy, and d. Understands the Organization is charitable and in order to maintain its federal tax exemption it must engage primarily in activities which accomplish one or more of its tax-exempt purposes. Article VII Periodic Reviews To ensure the Organization operates in a manner consistent with charitable purposes and does not engage in activities that could jeopardize its tax-exempt sta tus, periodic reviews shall be conducted. The periodic reviews shall, at a minimum, include the following subjects: a. Whether compensation arrangements and benefits are reasonable, based on competent survey information, and the result of arm’s length bargaining. b. Whether partnerships, joint ventures, and arrangements with management organizations conform to the Organization’s written policies, are properly recorded, reflect reasonable investment or payments for goods and services, further charitable purposes and do not result in inurement, impermissible private benefit or in an excess benefit transaction. How to cite Conflict of Interest, Essay examples

Legitimate Power

Introduction According to Phatak, power is the ability to influence the outcome of other people’s behaviors. Accordingly, one can only boost power if he/she is able to influence the world around him/her. Legitimate power is one of the important types of powers enjoyed by leaders. Additionally, legitimate power depends on the position a person occupies within an organization.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Legitimate Power specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For that reason, legitimate power is the power enjoyed by a person by virtue of his position within an organization (Phatak). Ashraf also reiterates that legitimate power is the degree to which a leader uses his juniors to fulfill certain goals. However, the legitimate power concept allows a person to exercise more power than his position permits (Phatak). This scenario occurs when his/her seniors delegate some of their responsibilities to him/her. On th e other hand, a leader can also exercise less power than what is conferred on him/her (Phatak). Accordingly, he can delegate some of his powers to his juniors. Nevertheless, one cannot lead effectively if he or she does not understand the people he is leading. For that reason, all leaders must understand the fundamental principles of organizational behaviour. Furthermore, power can have negative or positive effects on an organization, depending on how it is utilized (Merchant). For instance, good leaders are likely to use power in a manner that produces results. On the other hand, leaders who use power arrogantly or in a domineering manner are likely to encounter resistance from their subordinates. Therefore, they are less likely to produce results. In addition, legitimate power has boundaries, as such, it can only be exercised to a certain extent. For that reason, exercise of legitimate cannot go beyond an employee’s zone of indifference (Hellriegel and Slocum 24). An Overvi ew of Power One cannot fully understand the concept of legitimate power without revisiting the definition of power. According to Phatak, a person is said to possess power when he or she has the capability to influence outcomes and fulfill goals. Merchant also adds that a person can also exercise power unknowingly. For that reason, most people fail to recognize that they possess power. In simple terms, power enables a person to get things done. According to Green, there are several ways in which one can acquire power. Power can be won, given or forcefully taken (Green). To start with, one can compete for power as in the case with elections. Secondly, one can receive power from another person. Finally, one can forcefully dethrone another person from power.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Major Attributes of Legitimate Power Legitimate power is an important aspect in the day t o day running of a busy organization. However, in order to fully understand legitimate power, it is important to know what legitimacy means. In his article, Phatak reiterates that legitimacy is undertaking something without breaking the law. In this regard, the law is the code of conduct that is accepted and unanimously agreed upon by members of an organization (Phatak). Legitimate power, on the other hand, refers to the power a leader enjoys within an organization (Phatak). Therefore, legitimate power refers to the authority a person enjoys due to his or her rank. For that reason, the strength of legitimate power depends on the status of a person in an organization’s power structure (Merchant). Legitimate power is also called positional power (Merchant). Citing Hinkin and Schriesheim, Faeth also states that legitimate power is the ability to make another person feel obligated or responsible. In this case, the leader is indentified by the responsibilities bestowed on him. The refore, a legitimate leader has more rights and responsibilities than his followers. In addition, he has an absolute control over his follower. For instance, subordinates report to managers. On the other hand, a manager allocates responsibilities to subordinates. In addition, a manager has the right to control the behaviors of his subordinates. Interestingly, when a person receives more responsibilities, his legitimate powers increase (Merchant). Powerful leaders, therefore, have more tasks than less powerful ones. Furthermore, in some instances people with legitimate power fail to recognize that they have this type of power (Fuqua, Payne and Cangemi). They are only aware of people who cling on them to fulfill certain goals. Nonetheless, a legitimate leader must find a way of helping his or her juniors internalize the notion that he/she has the right to command them (Ashraf). This act prevents leaders from losing legitimacy. If a leader loses legitimacy, subordinates fail to recogni ze his or her authority. However, if a legitimate leader earns power illegitimately, he is likely to exercise it less effectively (Phatak). In most instances, he abuses this power. A chief executive officer (CEO) is an example of a person who has legitimate power. CEOs acquire power legitimately.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Legitimate Power specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Consequently, most of them are very competent. Additionally, power should be allocated, depending on the capabilities of individuals involved. Therefore, it is important to understand the concept of personality when allocating legitimate powers. According to Ashraf, personality refers to traits that particular individuals enjoy. Types of Legitimate Power Russ states that there are three types of legitimate power. These types include charismatic, authority and legal powers. Charismatic power is exercised when people obey someone because of his personal attributes. For instance, Jesus and Hitler used charismatic power to attract followers. On the other hand, traditional or authority power is exercised when people are given power to continue a tradition. In addition, this form of legitimate power is exercised to preserve or continue something that binds people together. For example, the queen of England exercises authority over her subjects. Moreover, she holds this leadership position by virtue of a tradition within Britain. In simple terms, members of the loyal family inherit the throne. Lastly, legal or rational power gives leaders the right to give orders and expect them to be followed. Additionally, the offices that these leaders occupy compel people to respect their orders (Russ). For that reason, the success of this power does not depend on a person’s qualities or competencies. Ways of Acquiring Legitimate Power According to Faeth, there are three sources of legitimate powers. These sources include cultur al values, titles and authority by virtue of positions. However, according to Ashraf, one can increase his chances of acquiring legitimate power through several ways. Firstly, one can increase contacts with his seniors. Therefore, displaying one’s potential to the seniors is a sure way of acquiring a leadership position within an organization. Secondly, making presentations on various issues affecting an organization also helps one ascend to power. Oral presentation is an effective way of showcasing one’s ability to lead. Thirdly, one can voluntarily participate in task forces that mainly deal with problem-solving. Problem-solving is one of the useful attributes of a leader. Lastly, legitimate power can be increased through mentoring upcoming leaders. Fuqua, Payne and Cangemi reiterate that nurturing other people’s power help leaders become more powerful.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For that reason, a manager who empowers employees becomes more of a colleague than a boss (Fuqua, Payne and Cangemi). Such a manager relies on his influence, relationship and the respect between him and the employees to prosper. Legitimate Power and Organization Behaviour Running an organization requires an understanding of some basic principles of managing people. For example, an organization consists of employees that require motivation to generate results. Therefore, it is important for managers and other leaders, who enjoy legitimate powers within an organization to understand the fundamental principles of organizational behaviour (Ashraf). Organization behaviour refers to the study of behaviors of individuals and groups within an organization (Ashraf). Additionally, organizational behaviour studies the characteristics of an organization. For that reason, legitimate leaders must fully comprehend the theory of organizational behaviour if they are to govern an organization or a de partment effectively. Globalization has led to a situational in which people with different backgrounds work together. Consequently, most of the organizations consist of people from differently cultural backgrounds. Therefore, unless a leader understands his followers, he cannot influence them in any way. Understanding the behaviors within an organization, therefore, helps a leader develop competencies that help him predict how subordinates are likely to conduct themselves (Ashraf). Consequently, a leader is able to control behaviors of his subordinates. For instance, a leader is able to encourage behaviors that produce positive results and discourage those that do not benefit the organization. Boundaries of Legitimate Power The legitimate power concept allows a person to exercise more power than what is bestowed on him (Phatak). For that reason, his seniors are free to delegate some of their responsibilities to him. Additionally, a leader is free to exercise less power than what is bestowed on him (Phatak). Therefore, he can go below the boundaries of his legitimacy. Accordingly, he can deputize his responsibilities to those below his rank. Delegation of power occurs when a leader feels that he cannot fulfill his responsibilities without assistance. Nonetheless, a person who enjoys delegated authority is accountable to the leader who delegated the authority to him. Delegation of power is also important when an organization wants to indentify, promote and nature new leaders (Ashraf). In other words, delegation can be a tool for uplifting subordinates who show some potential in leadership. This act is referred to as succession planning or legitimating a leader (Ashraf). Succession planning is particularly important when there are plans to change a section of the leadership in an organization. For example, a leader may be retiring, resigning or suspended. However, organizations must have a clear picture of the amount of power that can be exercised at every rank. This enables an organization to determine responsibilities that can be delegated. Consequently, organizations run smoothly when leaders understand their legitimate powers as there is less room for friction. It is worth noting that leaders are given powers depending on their capabilities. Therefore, in most instances, top leaders are more competent than leaders from lower ranks. For that reason, not everything can be delegated. Moreover, too much freedom leads to a situation where people forget the nature of their legitimate power (Phatak). As a result, there is friction and abuse of power. Nonetheless, in some cases, non managerial employees may exercise some legitimate power (Hellriegel and Slocum 23). For instance, a subordinate may be forced to stop working with a machine when safety is violated. A subordinate takes this decision regardless of what a manager thinks. Accordingly, a manager is expected to respect a decision made by the subordinate under such circumstances. Accordi ng to Hellriegel and Slocum, subordinates respond to a leader’s influence when they acknowledge his or her legitimate right to lead them (24). Accordingly, he can tell them what to do without any resistance. Furthermore, a leader who has legitimate power makes decisions in a specific area of responsibilities (Hellriegel and Slocum 24). This area defines the activities under which a leader is expected to exercise legitimate powers on to influence performance. Therefore, leaders who enjoy legitimate powers should stick to their powers. Hellriegel and Slocum reaffirm that the further leaders move away from their specific areas of leadership, the weaker their legitimate powers become (24). In addition, subordinates have a zone of indifference in respect to legitimate powers (Hellriegel and Slocum 24). A zone of indifference refers to the extent to which subordinates will accept directives from leaders without questioning their powers (Hellriegel and Slocum 24). For that reason, l eaders have a certain level of legitimacy. Therefore, if legitimate power is exercised beyond a certain degree, it disappears rapidly (Hellriegel and Slocum 24). For instance, a secretary answers calls, arranges appointments, opens mails or does similar tasks under the directives of a manager. However, a secretary has the right to disobey or question manager’s motives when he orders her to accompany him for a drink. The manager’s request, hence, falls outside the secretary’s zone of indifference. Accordingly, the manager lacks the legitimacy to expect the secretary to comply with his order. Outcomes of Legitimate Power in Organizations People enjoying legitimate powers must adhere to the principle of leadership. Just like any other form of power, legitimate power is exercised in leadership positions. Therefore, legitimate leaders must give guidance and directions to their subjects. This is the only way effective leaders can be differentiated from other leaders o r ordinary people. Leadership in business organizations is formal (Ashraf). Therefore, a single leadership blunder can ruin the targeted outcomes of a business. For that reason, leaders within business organizations must take their position seriously. In large organizations, there are power structures (Phatak). This means that every person or a leader is answerable to higher authority. The only person who is not answerable to anyone is the head of that organization. Depending on how it is exercised, power can have negative or positive effects on an organization (Merchant). For instance, good leaders are likely to use power in a manner that does not threaten the self esteem of the targeted person. Additionally, effective leaders use power in a careful and delicate fashion. Furthermore, legitimate power has several rewards. Green states that compliance is one of major outcomes of most powers exercised in an organization. In addition, legitimate power is one of the types of power that are most likely to produce compliance (Green). Effective legitimate leaders care about their subordinates and avoid actions that make them too dominant (Fuqua, Payne and Cangemi). Consequently, they are able to minimize the inferiority complex within an organization. These leaders, therefore, revert to humble ways of convincing people instead of flexing their muscles. Furthermore, these leaders also take the initiative to get things done. They provide their subordinates with the means and support needed to achieve specific goals. Green adds that in the context of legitimate power, the leader communicates his/her requests verbally or in writing. For that reason, giving arrogant commands makes leaders less effective. Polite requests, on the other hand, produce the desired outcomes. Consequently, subordinates are more likely to comply with the leader’s orders if he or she is more polite and does not exercise more power than he is mandated to. Therefore, an illegitimate request i s likely to be disregarded or resisted. Additionally, a legitimate request should be communicated in a language that a junior understands (Green). Moreover, this should be done in a clear and concise manner (Green). Resistance is an outcome of abused legitimate powers. According to Green, resistance mainly occurs when a legitimate leader tries to use his powers coercively and arrogantly. Therefore, leaders should avoid using powers arrogantly if they want to achieve positive results in their organizations. Arrogance results into unnecessary outcomes such as resentment and anxiety within the workforce. For that reason, coercion should only be used to deter behaviors that are detrimental to an organization. Some of these behaviors include theft, direct disobedience and behaviors that endanger others (Green). It is important for legitimate leaders to deter these behaviors because they might influence the direction an organization takes. Moreover, a bad behaviour worsens when it is tole rated. Conclusion Leaders require power to generate results within an organization. Likewise, a legitimate leader rewards his juniors for their contribution and achievements. Therefore, powerful leaders are judged on their ability to effectively persuade subordinates into fulfilling an organization’s goals (Fuqua, Payne and Cangemi). Therefore, legitimate power, just like any other power, helps leaders influence other people within an organization. However, leaders such as managers are said to have an influence when they use power in a manner that results to a change in other people’s behaviour. Accordingly, effective leaders understand how to use their legitimate powers in a way that fulfills their mandate. To do this effectively, these leaders use networks to enhance the flow of information (Ashraf). As a result, they are able to make their needs and goals clear. In addition, they are also able to bargain effectively for their fulfillment. Therefore, junior workers a re able to accept these leaders as part of them rather than mere sources of authority. Consequently, legitimate leaders are able to direct their juniors to act in a way that fulfils an organization’s goals without any resistance. However, when a leader exercises his powers in an abrasive manner, he fails to utilize the talents of junior members of an organization (Fuqua, Payne and Cangemi). However, a leader can increase his legitimate power by mentoring upcoming leaders within an organization. Therefore, empowering junior workers is a sure way of increasing a person’s legitimate powers. Citing Yukl, Green states that most leaders depend on personal powers than legitimate powers. Nonetheless, legitimate power is still significant to an organization. Legitimate power exercises its influence on subordinates. For that reason, legitimate power determines the direction an organization takes. Works Cited Ashraf, T n.d., Organizational Behavior. PDF file. 25 Nov. 2012.http:// www.unesco.org/pv_obj_cache/pv_obj_id_8E0BBAEF641721A7F5D57B6A549E47F9B2C80100/filename/unit_14.pdf. Faeth, Margaret 2004, Study of the Behavioral Influence Tactics Used by Lay and Ordained Leaders in the Episcopal Church. PDF file. 25 Nov. 2012. http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd04202004172143/unrestricted/mabfaethdiss.pdf. Fuqua, Harold, Payne Kay and Cangemi Joseph n.d., Leadership and the Effective Use of Power. PDF file. 25 Nov. 2012. http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Fuqua,%20Jr%20Harold%20E.%20Leadership%20and%20the%20Effectives%20Use%20of%20Power.pdf?3e3ea140. Green, Dennis n.d., Leadership as a Function of Power. PDF file. 25 Nov. 2012. http://www.uthscsa.edu/gme/documents/LspasaFunctionofPower.pdf Hellriegel, Don, and Slocum John. Organizational Behavior, Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2007. Print Merchant, Paul. n.d. 5 Sources of Power in Organizations. Web. http://smallbusiness.chron.com/5-sources-power-organizations-14467.html. Phatak, Omk ar. 2012. Legitimate Power in Leadership. Web. http://www.buzzle.com/articles/legitimate-power-in-leadership.html. Russ. Weber: Three Types of ‘Legitimate’ Power. 15 Jun. 2012. Web. http://efpow.blogspot.com/2012/06/weber-three-types-of-legitimate-power.html. This report on Legitimate Power was written and submitted by user Hazel Galloway to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Stereotypes †the Outsiders Essay Essay Example

Stereotypes – the Outsiders Essay Essay Example Stereotypes – the Outsiders Essay Paper Stereotypes – the Outsiders Essay Paper Essay Topic: The Outsiders Ever felt targeted? Witness person be judged by how they spoke? Felt as if no 1 belongs? Is it because they dress. act. or larn otherwise or a certain manner? Most immature grownups go through these types of battles. Stereotypes are preconceived labels subjected on the populace. When adolescents do things out of the ordinary. frock otherwise. or hang out with specific people they tend to be measured up into or against these stereotypes. A common happening in high school. these stereotypes that try to specify adolescents. can impact them either positively or work against us in negatively. When people are labeled it is normally through a stereotype. they are judged on their visual aspect. attitude. personality. and friends along with many other superficial constituents. â€Å"Instead of being presented with stereotypes by age. sex. colour. category. or faith. kids must hold the chance to larn that within each scope. some people are nauseating and some are delicious. † ( Manson ) Characterization is a tool used to picture person through the traits of their personality and association with those around them. Of class. with the clang of characters and imposed stereotypes. struggle between people is about certain. Rivalry. a by-product of struggle and the jurisprudence of endurance is ever at drama within society. S. E. Hinton uses these literary techniques of stereotypes. word picture and struggle throughout the novel of The Outsiders to picture they cardinal subject of competition. In The Outsiders. every character has been classified as â€Å"a greaser† . being stereotyped like that is pretty cruel. When Ponyboy said. â€Å"We both need a haircut and some nice apparels. They’ll know we’re goons the minute they see us! † ( Hinton. 64 ) He admitted to yielding to his stereotype. Proving to the readers that the Greasers were based on their visual aspect. When people see them. they think that because they wear raggedy-down old vesture they are hapless. non of import. juvenile delinquents. Additionally. apart from being judged on their visual aspect. they are grouped together. all being seen as punks with no room for individualism. Ponyboy. Dally. and Johnny met two immature Soc misss at the drive-in film theatre. Dally’s rude and unpleasant attitude gave the two misss a bad first feeling of the Greasers as a whole. Subsequently on. Ponyboy talked to Cherry. altering her position wholly through the deep conversation he has with her. go forthing her wholly astounded at his intellectuality and at the find that the Greaser stereotype she had fitted him into was wholly erroneous. In the beginning. Ponyboy drops the narrative to pass a few pages feeding the readers with a brief sum-up on the characters mentioned throughout the book such as Sodapop. Darry. Steve. Two-Bit. Dally. and Johnny. Ponyboy tells the readers that the ground his group is called The Greasers is because of their long greasy looking hair. â€Å"My hair is longer than a batch of male childs wear theirs. squared off in back and long at the forepart and sides. but I’m a wetback and most of my vicinity seldom fusss to acquire a haircut. Besides. I look better with long hair. † ( Hinton. 1 ) He informs the readers that the ground him and Sodapop have interesting names. is because it expresses the love their parents felt for them and it describes their personalities. He mentioned that Steve is smart and really cocky. Two-Bit neer takes things earnestly. ever jesting about. merely goes to school for the boot of it non to travel to larn or anything. Dally’s existent name is Dal las. he mentions that he’s tougher. colder. and more mean than any other Greaser. Readers are left with the idea that Johnny is frightened. unloved. victimized. abused. and helpless. When a auto full of Socs pulls up. Pony and Johnny seek to run off. Alternatively. those Socs trap them down. As Pony is about to submerge in an ice-cold park fountain. Johnny stabs a Soc. The Soc who was managing pulls him out. Johnny tells Pony that he stabbed a Soc as Pony’s seeking to retrieve his breath. Pony looks over to see a Soc on the land and puddle of blood merely to throw up. To avoid any more jobs they leave and go to an old wooden church far from place. Spending five yearss at that place entirely. they cut their hair to look different from the newspapers. Merely as they were approximately to travel place. the church catches fire. †Ã¢â‚¬â„¢I’ll acquire them don’t concern! ’ I started at a dead tally for the church. and the adult male caught my arm. ‘I’ll acquire them. You kids remain out! ’† ( Hinton. 91 ) Pony explains to the readers that several kids are inside the combustion church and there is non a whole batch of clip to wait for the fire section to come and deliver them. Pony wakes up. in a infirmary bed being reunited with his brothers. He is told that Dally is all right. but that Johnny is in critical status and might decease. When he gets out he’s told that there will be a rumble with the Greasers vs. the Socs. Being in good status. Pony wants in on the battle. Dally is released merely in clip for the battle. After the rumble. Dally got the intelligence that Johnny is deceasing. When he gets to the infirmary to state him the triumph of the bash. he is told that contending doesn’t solve anything and see Johnny’s painful decease. Dally being really disquieted make-believes to be armed and goes to the constabulary merely to be shot to decease. fall ining Johnny. As demonstrated. struggle has arisen in this narrative as a cause of the two opposing forces of the Socs and Greasers. The stereotypes show the cause for misconstruing and how stereotypes are neer right and that a group of people can neer are categorized as the same. True individualism radiances through with the usage of word picture. turn outing the stereotypes to be erroneous. The struggle in this narrative is the effect. the monetary value paid for the competition. which was cause of preconceived impressions and ignorance. Stereotypes are revealed to be false. individualism is at last illustrated through the development word picture throughout the narrative. and the concluding blow out is a representation of what ignorance. labels. and rivalry bring about. Plants CitedHinton. S E. The Outsiders. N. p. : n. p. . 1962. N. pag. Print. Manson. Margaret. â€Å"Stereotype Quotes A ; Quotations. † Think Exist. N. p. . n. d. Web. 28 Apr. 2011. lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //thinkexist. com/?quotation/?instead_of_being_presented_with_stereotypes_by/?327616. hypertext markup language gt ; .

The Thirteenth Tale Book Club Discussion Questions

'The Thirteenth Tale' Book Club Discussion Questions The Thirteenth Tale by Diane Setterfield is a rich story about secrets, ghosts, winter, books and family. These book club discussion questions on The Thirteenth Tale will help you explore Setterfields masterfully created story. Spoiler Warning: These book club discussion questions reveal important details about The Thirteenth Tale by Diane Setterfield. Finish the book before reading on. Books play an important role in The Thirteenth Tale. Discuss Margaret and Miss Winters relationships to books and stories. Could you relate to them? What is your relationship to books? Do you agree with Miss Winter that stories can reveal truth better than simply stating it?The two houses in The Thirteenth TaleAngelfield and Miss Winters estateare prominent in the story. How do the houses reflect the characters who live in them? What do you think they represent?Why do you think Margaret obeyed Miss Winters summons?Miss Winter asks Margaret if she would like to hear a ghost story. Who are the ghosts in the story? In what ways are different characters haunted (Margaret, Miss Winter, Aurelius)?Why do you think Margarets sisters death affected her so profoundly? Why do you think she was able to move beyond it at the end of the novel?After Mrs. Dunne and John Digence die, Miss Winter says the girl in the mist emerges. Did you believe that Adeline had matured? If not, did you suspect the t rue identity of the character? When did you first suspect Miss Winters true identity? Were you surprised? Looking back, what clues did she give you?Do you think Adeline or Emmeline was saved from the fire?What is the significance of Jane Eyre to the story?Do you think it is harder to keep a secret or confess the complete truth?Were you satisfied with the way the story ended for various charactersAurelius, Hester, Margaret?Rate The Thirteenth Tale on a scale of 1 to 5.

Glass ceiling and glass border are terminologies often used to Essay

Glass ceiling and glass border are terminologies often used to describe barriers women might face in the labour market. Do we see any evidence of these barriers disappearing - Essay Example Since little is known about these challenges, there is a lack of coping strategies developed to avert them. This deficiency in coping strategies limits the availability of opportunities for women’s progression to senior management positions by creating both covert and overt barriers (Donald and Hartmann, 2005, p.478). However, with the advent of globalization, issues of gender equity and gender equality are progressively gaining popularity (Donald and Hartmann, 2005, p.480). This has resulted in an increase in women’s participation in the labor force as they progressively get acceptance in professions, careers and occupations previously reserved for men. However, most of the results from the efforts fall short of set targets and expectations (Thomas and Sally, 2005, p.490). This has necessitated a proper understanding of the covert and overt barriers to women’s progression to top management positions. The slow but progressive disappearance of these barriers will form the major part of this document. IHRM is a practice that encompasses all the activities revolving around coordinating employees and their efforts towards attaining pre-determined goals and objectives at a global scale (Thomas and Sally, 2001, p.89). IHRM also entails the process of sourcing for human resources, allocating them appropriate roles, and effectively putting their skill sets to use to maximize on the organizational effectiveness and efficiency of international firms (Thomas and Sally, 2001, p.89). The term â€Å"glass ceiling† is used to describe the invisible and intangible barrier that prevents women or ethnic minorities from getting into top-level management in a hierarchical system (Olga and Rà ­o, 2012, p.160). A glass ceiling can also be defined as a set of attitudes that fosters the unjust prevention of women and ethnic minorities from getting into highly influential positions (Olga and Rà ­o, 2012, p.163). In most organizations, the existence of the discriminatory barrier in

Critically evaluate the behaviours and traits for effective lead Essay

Critically evaluate the behaviours and traits for effective lead - Essay Example This process can be effective through appropriate management of change to adapt to all the environments of the business. Change management refers to an organized and planned approach that helps to address the various variations that occur in the business environments. This also involves the appropriate response mechanisms for responding to changes that may occur among the workplace because of the changes that the business adopts. Change management involves an outline of a process to follow in order to experience an overall transformation in the whole business together with its employees. This guideline represents different steps that an individual has to adhere to so that the organization and its employees are coordinated towards the process of fulfilling its objectives. Create a Sense of Urgency An organization can only change if it can acknowledge the change. The leaders of the organization and its employees must recognize the need for change. The leaders of the organization partic ularly the managers should strive to inform employees about the need for change in the organization. This is done by developing a sense of urgency in the organization and its employees about the outlined procedures to revolutionize the organization. The management should be able to convince the employees through instilling positive thinking amongst the employees. This can be done by explaining the future circumstances to employees and potential future threats that may necessitate a change. This is to prevent the company from falling into such pitfalls. The company can also examine opportunities that can be possible in the future, if the company adopts different mechanisms of approaching its business environment. The company can give forth-convincing explanations about the change it needs. This is a strong motivator to speech and thinking among employees in order to arrive at the necessary change. This will also attract support from other areas of interest such as customers and other industries that may have interests in the company. This further boosts confidence for the company’s proposal since all parties are able to accept the change (Green, 2007, 167). Form a Powerful Coalition The organization should focus on leading the change to realize change. The company organization needs to bring a group of experienced individuals that are able to further the objectives of the organization towards change. Individuals from different levels of the company’s hierarchy, who draw their power from different sources, should be pooled together because they can offer the necessary advice on how change can be realized. This coalition will offer a priceless effort towards furthering the company’s urgency by build the required momentum towards change (Cameron & Green, 2009, 121). Create a Vision for Change The organization should be able to consolidate its ideas of change and bring it to the individual’s level of understanding. The vision for change should summarize the core values that the organization aims to achieve and should be effectively comprehended by the coalition formed to push for it (Vukotich, 2011, 41). Communicate the Vision The organization should ensure that its vision is thoroughly communicated and embedded in the organization. This is done through frequent expression of this vision in the decisions that the company makes,

Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent FMRI Psychology Essay

Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent FMRI Psychology Essay Functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) is the most widely used and powerful method of understanding the brain function and mapping neuroanatomy of the human brain. The most basic fMRI technique is blood oxygen level dependent (BLOD-fMRI). Paramagnetic deoxyhemoglobin in venous blood is a natural contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Basic principles and methodological applications of BOLD-MRI as an introduction are presented in this article, and the relationship between neural activation and a magnetic resonance signal change is represented in much detail. Introduction Functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) is a widely recognized technique for brain mapping and providing the anatomical information of brain activity. It has been demonstrated that this method bases on the local hemodynamic changes that influence deoxyhemoglobin changes in venous blood. Furthermore, susceptibility changes produced by deoxyhemoglobin changes lead to the changes of MR signal strength. This effect is called blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) contract (1). High spatial and temporal resolution brain mapping can be structured by this basic method. Currently, it has become the most powerful study of brain function techniques. Compared with the traditional neuroimaging methods, including positron emission tomography (PET) and intrinsic signal optical reflection imaging, BOLD-fMRI can provide high spatial and temporal resolution sufficiently using internal concentration of oxygenation in human bodies as a natural contrast agent. Blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) effect was firstly presented by Ogawa etc in 1990. They found that the magnetic resonance signal reduces when the concentration of oxyhemoglobin decreases. Also, their research showed that the reduction of signal not only occurs in blood, but also outside the blood vessels. Thus, they assert that this effect is caused by the property of magnetic field changes. After that, many researchers performed a large number of theoretical and experimental works to summarize the basis of BOLD-fMRI imaging. When neuron is activated, regional cerebral blood flow and oxygen consumption volume increase, but there are differences between the two increases, which is that the increase in cerebral blood flow is more than the oxygen consumption. Due to this difference, the venous oxygen concentration in active regions is significantly higher than the surrounding tissue and the concentration of deoxyhemoglobin reduces relatively. BOLD contrast has its origin in the fact that when normally diamagnetic oxyhemoglobin gives up its oxygen, the resulting deoxyhemoglobin is paramagnetic (2). Deoxyhemoglobin is a paramagnetic material which can produce local gradient magnetic field in the blood vessels and surroundings. Hence, it has effect on reducing T2. When brain areas are activated, the effect of reducing T2 decreases result from the reduction of deoxyhemoglobin. Compared with the resting state, T2 or T2* is relatively extended in local brain regions. Therefore, the signal is relatively enhanced on the T2 weighting or T2* weighting functional magnetic resonance imaging maps. Current MRI brain mapping studies all focus on off-on subtraction mode, which is the fMRI signal in active condition minus the signal under control conditions. The signal is extremely weak, and the relative increasing strength is 2%-5% generally. During imaging, the functional image of corresponding brain areas can be obtained if superimposing the high signal in different colors of active area on the high-resolution T1 weighting anatomical maps. This method is called blood oxygen level dependent contrast fMRI due to it depends on the level of oxygen in local blood vessels (1). This article reviews the basic principles and available methodological information and research on blood oxygen level dependent (BLOD-fMRI). This review begins with some basic principles on BOLD-fMRI. Furthermore, the methods for BOLD-fMRI will be described in detail including block design and event-related design. Also, the results of BOLD-fMRI studies will be presented and the advantages and limitations of the current research will be discussed as well. Finally, the key points and important aspects of the BOLD-fMRI will be summarized as a conclusion. Materials and Methods BOLD-fMRI experiment steps include: firstly, make experimental planning and determine the most optimal stimulus or task programs. Secondly, high T1 WL resolution anatomical images and a great number of original images in stimulation and rest states can be obtained by scanning. Lastly, functional active maps should be obtained by experimental data analysis. Block design bases on cognitive subtraction mode to show the stimulus task in block form. A tropical block design contains two basic tasks which are experimental tasks and control tasks, and the two intervals of blocks appear. Task-related brain activities can be understudied by the comparison of regional cerebral blood oxygen reaction through stimulation and control tasks. It is widely used in locating brain function. It is the early main method to do functional magnetic resonance imaging experiments. The advantages are simple and easy to perform tasks. However, the drawback is that the BOLD signal changes larger result in long stimulation time and the high rate of oxygen reaction. In blocked designs, regardless of stimulus presentation or task performance interdigitated with rest, observing the relationship of the time course of BOLD response to activation paradigm is possible (3). Also, more than one image can be obtained during every experimental and rest period. The signal time course should be assumed to be activated, and it can be tested. A simple example is presented in Figure 1(a). Firstly, switch on and off the visual stimulation (black and green) quickly for 10 times. It is shown that the time course of pixels follows the stimulation paradigm. However, the difference between the stimulation and time course is quite obviously (p

How Xerophytes Are Adapted for Water Loss Essay

Biology essay: describe the adaptations shown by xerophytes to reduce water loss A Xerophyte is a type of plant that is well adapted to water. Water loss is something that is very bad for the plants if the ratio of water lost to water taken in is too drastic. The cells may lose their turgidity and may even submit to plasmolysis, which will result in the plant wilting and eventually dying. Water loss via transpiration (loss of water vapour from the aerial parts of a plant due to evaporation) is fundamentally inevitable due to the fact that plants exchange gases with the atmosphere, via their stomata-the pores in a leafs epidermis . The bad aspect of this is the fact that the plants must photosynthesise in order to acquire the energy vital for their survival; for this exchange to occur the plant must be able to allow the gases in and out of the leaves, and to do this the stomata must open, meaning that water can be lost due to the opening of an exit, and also the change in the water va pour potential gradient. Water potential is the measure of the tendency/ability of water to move freely in a solution. Water moves from an area of high water potential to an area of lower water potential, and this is what causes the water vapour in the plant to be lost to the outside atmosphere, due to the difference in the water potential gradient, and we call this â€Å"moving along the water potential gradient†. If the water potential outside the plant was higher than the water potential inside the plant, then the plant would absorb water vapour rather than lose it, but because of the extreme weather conditions, and the difference in water potential the plant loses rather than gains water. The potential of water vapour is the same concept, and simply means the same thing but in terms of the gaseous form of water. Most plants can reduce water loss by structural and behavioural adaptations such as: * A waxy cuticle on the leaf will reduce water loss due to evaporation through the epidermis * The stom ata are often found on the undersurface of leaves, not on the top surface- this reduces the evaporation due to direct heating from the sun * Most stomata are closed at night, when there is no light for photosynthesis * Deciduous plants lose their leaves in winter, when the ground may be frozen (making water less available) and when temperatures may be too low for photosynthesis. However although xerophytes do execute these adaptations, they also have a number of adaptations specific to their own requirements that reduce the rate of water loss. Firstly, the surface area. Xerophytes have much smaller leaves, often shaped like needles. This reduces the surface area of the leaves significantly; hence the total leaf surface area is also reduced. This means that there is a much smaller area for the water vapour to escape from, this works well because the smaller the surface area, the smaller the quantity of water that can escape, therefore the less water lost. The thorn like structures reduce the area exposed for transpiration. Pine trees are prime examples of this, as they have small needle-shaped â€Å"leaves† that h ave a small surface area, therefore are able to retain more water as a result, because less of the area is exposed, and so transpiration cannot occur as abundantly. Next, includes the way mesophyll, the spongy inner tissue of a leaf that is composed of loosely arranged cells of irregular shape, is densely packed together. This reduces the cell surface area that is exposed to the air inside the leaves, meaning that the space for water to have access to is reduced, because the cells are more compact, thus creating a sealed wall where water cannot escape into and less water will evaporate into the leaf air spaces as a result, hence reducing the rate of water loss. A third factor of xerophytes that they have adapted themselves to include the waxy cuticle, which appears on all plants, is a lot thicker than the typical cuticle. The waxiness reduces evaporation further, particularly cuticular transpiration, where water escapes from fissures through the cuticle. This is because the cuticle, found at the epidermal (outermost) layer of cells, is made up of a complex formula of waxy substances known as Cutin, which acts sort of like a waterproof layer to p revent the loss of water from the surface cells, therefore reducing the amount of water that could be lost to the atmosphere. Fourthly, closing the stomata when water availability is low will reduce water loss and so reduce the need to take up water. This is because when the stomata is open for various reasons including gas exchange, water can escape from the openings made by the stomata, this is bad or a plant like a xerophyte which wants to retain as much after as possible, therefore keeping the stomata closed as much as possible increases the plants chances of retaining water, particularly when water is scarce. Next, hairs on the surface of the leaf trap a layer of air close to the surface. This air can become saturated with moisture and will reduce the diffusion of water vapour out through the stomata. This is because the gradient of the water vapour potential between the inside of the leaf and the outside has been reduced, for if there is a â€Å"barrier† of water between the inside of the cell and the out, then the gradient of water potential is significantly reduced, because the difference in water potential is less, hence water will not want to move from an area of high water potential to an area of low water potential. Pits containing stomata at their base also trap air that can become saturated with water vapour, and so also reduce the rate of water loss. This will reduce the gradient in the water vapour potential between inside and outside the lea, so reducing loss by diffusion. Behavioural aspects of adaptations that xerophytes achieve include rolling their leaves up so that the lower epidermis is not exposed to the atmosphere which can trap air that becomes saturated. This is another way to reduce or even eliminate the water potential gradient. Another point to make is that some plants have a low water potential inside their leaf cells. This is achieved by maintaining a high salt concentration in the cells. The low water potential reduces the evaporation o water from the cell surfaces as the water potential gradient between the cells and the leaf air spaces is reduced. An excellent example of a xerophyte is marram grass. A dense green plant with protruding spikes that appears in tufts, which you often see dotted along the coastal scenery. Its principal habitat is sand dunes and the conditions are very severe and can be particularly brutal at times, with winds and salty, dry terrain. The features described above mirror a lot of the characteristics that marram grass possess, such as rolling up its leaves to trap air inside as well as a thick waxy cuticle to reduce water evaporation rom surface cells, and hence is a very good example of a xerophyte. In conclusion, xerophytes are very durable plants that have adapted exceedingly well to living in such harsh conditions. Their features allow them to retain water incredibly well, and that provides them with an advantage to living in places such as the desert in comparison with a normal plant.

Biography of Polycarp, Christian Bishop and Martyr

Polycarp (60-155 CE), also known as Saint Polycarp, was a Christian bishop of Smyrna, the modern city of Izmir in Turkey. He was an Apostolic father, meaning he was a student of one of the original disciples of Christ; and he was known to other important figures in the early Christian church, including Irenaeus, who knew him as a youth, and Ignatius of Antioch, his colleague in the Eastern Catholic church. His surviving works include a Letter to the Philippians, in which he quotes the Apostle Paul, some of which quotes appear in the books of the New Testament and the Apocrypha. Polycarps letter has been used by scholars to identify Paul as the probable writer of those books. Polycarp was tried and executed as a criminal by the Roman empire in 155 C.E., becoming the 12th Christian martyr in Smyrna; the documentation of his martyrdom is an important document in the history of the Christian church. Birth, Education, and Career Polycarp was likely born in Turkey, about 69 C.E. He was a student of the obscure disciple John the Presbyter, sometimes considered to be the same as John the Divine. If John the Presbyter was a separate apostle, he is credited with writing the book of Revelations. As Bishop of Smyrna, Polycarp was a father figure and mentor to Irenaeus of Lyons (ca 120–202 C.E.), who heard his preachings and mentioned him in several writings. Polycarp was a subject of the historian Eusebius (ca 260/265–ca 339/340 C.E.), who wrote about his martyrdom and connections with John. Eusebius is the earliest source separating out John the Presbyter from John the Divine. Irenaeus Letter to the Smyrneans is one of the sources recounting Polycarps martyrdom. Martyrdom of Polycarp The Martyrdom of Polycarp or Martyrium Polycarpi in Greek and abbreviated MPol in the literature, is one of the earliest examples of the martyrdom genre, documents which recount the history and legends surrounding a particular Christian saints arrest and execution. The date of the original story is unknown; the earliest extant version was composed in the early 3rd century. Polycarp was 86 years old when he died, an old man by any standard, and he was the bishop of Smyrna. He was considered a criminal by the Roman state because he was a Christian. He was arrested at a farmhouse and taken to the Roman amphitheater in Smyrna where he was burned and then stabbed to death. Mythic Events of the Martyrdom Supernatural events described in MPol include a dream Polycarp had that he would die in flames (rather than being torn apart by lions), a dream that MPol says was fulfilled. A disembodied voice emanating from the arena as he entered entreated Polycarp to be strong and show yourself a man. When the fire was lit, the flames did not touch his body, and the executioner had to stab him; Polycarps blood gushed out and put out the flames. Finally, when his body was found in the ashes, it was said to have not been roasted but rather baked as bread; and a sweet aroma of frankincense was said to have arisen from the pyre. Some early translations say a dove rose out of the pyre, but there is some debate about the accuracy of the translation. With the MPol and other examples of the genre, martyrdom was being shaped into a highly public sacrificial liturgy: in Christian theology, the Christians were Gods choice for martyrdom who were trained for the sacrifice. Martyrdom as Sacrifice In the Roman empire, criminal trials and executions were highly structured spectacles that dramatized the power of the state. They attracted mobs of people to see the state and criminal square off in a battle that the state was supposed to win. Those spectacles were intended to impress on the minds of the spectators how powerful the Roman Empire was, and what a bad idea it was to attempt to go against them. By turning a criminal case into a martyrdom, the early Christian church emphasized the brutality of the Roman world, and explicitly converted the execution of a criminal into a sacrifice of a holy person. The MPol reports that Polycarp and the writer of the MPol considered Polycarps death a sacrifice to his god in the Old Testament sense. He was bound like a ram taken out of a flock for sacrifice and made an acceptable burnt-offering unto God. Polycarp prayed that he was happy to have been found worthy to be counted among the martyrs, I am a fat and acceptable sacrifice. Epistle of St. Polycarp to the Philippians The only surviving document known to have been written by Polycarp was a letter (or perhaps two letters) he wrote to the Christians at Philippi. The Phillippians had written to Polycarp and asked him to write an address to them, as well as to forward a letter they had written to the church of Antioch, and to send them any epistles of Ignatius he might have. The importance of Polycarps epistle is that it explicitly ties the apostle Paul to several pieces of writing in what would eventually become the New Testament. Polycarp uses expressions such as as Paul teaches to quote several passages which are today found in different books of the New Testament and the Apocrypha, including Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Timothy, 1 Peter, and 1 Clement. Sources Ari, Bryen. Martyrdom, Rhetoric, and the Politics of Procedure. Classical Antiquity 33.2 (2014): 243–80. Print.Bacchus, Francis Joseph. St. Polycarp. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 12. New York City: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. Print.Berding, Kenneth. Polycarp of Smyrnas View of the Authorship of 1 and 2 Timothy. Vigiliae Christianae 53.4 (1999): 349–60. Print.Moss, Candida R. On the Dating of Polycarp: Rethinking the Place of the Martyrdom of Polycarp in the History of Christianity. Early Christianity 1.4 (2010): 539–74. Print.Norris, Frederick W. Ignatius, Polycarp, and I Clement: Walter Bauer Reconsidered. Vigiliae Christianae 30.1 (1976): 23–44. Print.Pionius, Alexander Roberts, and James Donaldson. [English Translation of ]the Martyrdom of Polycarp. Ante-Nicene Fathers. Eds. Roberts, Alexander, James Donaldson and A. Cleveland Coxe. Vol. 1. Buffalo, New Yokr: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1888 Print.Thompson, Leonard L. The Martyrdom of Pol ycarp: Death in the Roman Games. The Journal of Religion 82.1 (2002): 27–52. Print.

Understanding States Rights and the 10th Amendment

In American government, states’ rights are the rights and powers reserved by the state governments rather than the national government according to the U.S. Constitution. From the Constitutional Convention in 1787 to the Civil War in 1861 to the civil rights movement of the 1960s, to today’s marijuana legalization movement, the question of the rights of the states to govern themselves has been the focus of the American political landscape for well over two centuries. Key Takeaways: States' Rights States’ rights refer to the political rights and powers granted to the states of the United States by the U.S. Constitution.Under the doctrine of states’ rights, the federal government is not allowed to interfere with the powers of the states reserved or implied to them by the 10th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.In issues such as slavery, civil rights, gun control, and marijuana legalization, conflicts between states’ rights and the powers of the federal government have been a part of civic debate for over two centuries. The doctrine of states’ rights holds that the federal government is barred from interfering with certain rights â€Å"reserved† to the individual states by the 10th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The 10th Amendment The debate over states’ rights started with the writing of the Constitution and Bill of Rights. During the Constitutional Convention, the Federalists, led by John Adams, argued for a powerful federal government, while the Anti-federalists, led by Patrick Henry, opposed the Constitution unless it contained a set of amendments specifically listing and ensuring certain rights of the people and the states. Fearing that the states would fail to ratify the Constitution without it, the Federalists agreed to include the Bill of Rights. In establishing American government’s power-sharing system of federalism, the Bill of Rights 10th Amendment holds that all rights and powers not specifically reserved to Congress by Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution or to be shared concurrently by the federal and state governments are reserved by either the states or by the people. In order to prevent the states from claiming too much power, the Constitution’s Supremacy Clause (Article VI, Clause 2) holds that all laws enacted by the state governments must comply with the Constitution, and that whenever a law enacted by a state conflicts with a federal law, the federal law must be applied. The Alien and Sedition Acts The issue of states’ rights versus the Supremacy Clause was first tested in 1798 when the Federalist-controlled Congress enacted the Alien and Sedition Acts. Anti-federalists Thomas Jefferson and James Madison believed the Acts’ restrictions on freedom of speech and freedom of the press violated the Constitution. Together, they secretly wrote the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions supporting states’ rights and calling on the state legislatures to nullify federal laws they considered unconstitutional. Madison, however, would later come to fear that such unchecked applications of states’ rights could weaken the union, and argued that in ratifying the Constitution, the states had yielded their sovereignty rights to the federal government. The Issue of States’ Rights in the Civil War While slavery and its abolition are the most visible, the question of states’ rights was the underlying cause of the Civil War. Despite the overarching reach of the Supremacy Clause, proponents of states’ rights like Thomas Jefferson continued to believe the states should have the right to nullify federal acts within their boundaries. In 1828 and again in 1832, Congress enacted protective trade tariffs, which while helping the industrial northern states, hurt the agricultural southern states. Outraged by what it called the â€Å"Tariff of Abominations,† the South Carolina legislature, on November 24, 1832, enacted an Ordinance of Nullification declaring the federal tariffs of 1828 and 1832 â€Å"null, void, and no law, nor binding upon this State, its officers or citizens.† On December 10, 1832, President Andrew Jackson responded by issuing a â€Å"Proclamation to the People of South Carolina,† demanding that the state observe the Supremacy Clause and threatening to send federal troops to enforce the tariffs. After Congress passed a compromise bill reducing the tariffs in the southern states, the South Carolina legislature rescinded its Ordinance of Nullification on March 15, 1832. While it made President Jackson a hero to nationalists, the so-called Nullification Crisis of 1832 reinforced the growing feeling among Southerners that they would continue to be vulnerable to the Northern majority as long as their states remained a part of the union. Over the next three decades, the main battle over states’ rights shifted from economics to slavery. Did the southern states, whose largely agricultural economy depended on slave labor, have the right to maintain the slave trade in defiance of federal laws abolishing it? By 1860, that question, along with the election of anti-slavery President Abraham Lincoln, drove 11 southern states to secede from the union. Though secession was not intended to create an independent nation, Lincoln viewed it as an act of treason conducted in violation of both the Supremacy Clause and federal law.   Civil Rights Movement From the day in 1866, when the U.S. Congress passed America’s first civil rights law, public and legal opinions have been divided on whether the federal government overrides states’ rights in attempting to ban racial discrimination nationwide. Indeed, key provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment dealing with racial equality were largely ignored in the South until the 1950s. During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s, southern politicians who supported the continuation of racial segregation and enforcement of state-level â€Å"Jim Crow† laws denounced anti-discrimination laws like the Civil Rights Act of 1964 as federal interference with states’ rights. Even after passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, several southern states passed â€Å"Interposition Resolutions† contending that the states retained the right to nullify the federal laws. Current States Rights Issues As an inherent byproduct of federalism, questions of states’ rights will undoubtedly continue to be a part of American civic debate for years to come. Two highly visible examples of current states’ rights issues include marijuana legalization and gun control. Marijuana Legalization While at least 10 states have enacted laws allowing their residents to possess, grow, and sell marijuana for recreational and medical use, the possession, production, and sale of marijuana continues to be a violation of federal drug laws. Despite previously rolling back an Obama-era hands-off approach to prosecuting violations of federal marijuana laws in pot-legal states, former Attorney General Jeff Sessions clarified on March 8, 2018 that federal law enforcement officers would go after dealers and drug gangs, rather than casual users. Gun Control Both the federal and state governments have been enacting gun control laws for over 180 years. Due to an increase in incidents of gun violence and mass shootings, state gun control laws are now often more restrictive than federal laws. In these cases, gun rights advocates often argue that the states have actually exceeded their rights by ignoring both the Second Amendment and the Supremacy Clause of the Constitution. In the 2008 case of District of Columbia v. Heller, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a District of Columbia law completely banning its citizens from possessing handguns violated the Second Amendment. Two years later, the Supreme Court ruled that its Heller decision applied to all U.S. states and territories. Other current states’ rights issues include same-sex marriage, the death penalty, and assisted suicide. Sources and Further Reference Drake, Frederick D., and Lynn R. Nelson. 1999. States Rights and American Federalism: A Documentary History. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30573-3.Mason, Alpheus Thomas. 1972. The States Rights Debate: Antifederalism and the Constitution. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN-13; 978-0195015539McDonald, Forrest. 2000. States Rights and the Union: Imperium in Imperio, 1776-1876. Lawrence: Univ. Press of Kansas.Interposition. Center for the Study of Federalism.